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TENTH CHAPTER
Wrestling is closely related to pugilism. An ancient heroic sport. The origin of the word for wrestling. The school for this combat is called a palaestra, and these fighters par excellence are called athletes. Wrestling: standing or throwing. What is standing wrestling. It had some resemblance to pugilism. This was usually a prelude to throwing wrestling. Throwing wrestling extensively described by Mercurialis. The most artful form of sport. Various techniques of the wrestlers. The victory consisted of throwing the opponent. This had to happen three times. Prizes of the winners. Illustration of the wrestling match in Mercurialis.
§. I.
Now we return to the Olympic Games, where wrestling is next. Those who practiced this sport were called wrestlers. Before we explain this sport in more detail, it is fitting to first provide the description by the great Scaliger. This is especially to show how closely it is related to the preceding Olympic sport, namely pugilism. (Scaliger, On Poetics, book 1, chapter 22) These are the man's words: "However, the Greeks derive the word for wrestling from 'to shake,' etc." That is:
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The Greeks derive the name for wrestling from 'shaking,' the Latins from 'movement,' from which 'to sprain' and 'to wrench' are derived. We do not wrestle in just one way: sometimes by a mutual embrace of the body and shoulders, sometimes by entwining the arms after seizing the hand. In pugilism, the fighter is only allowed to use fists; in wrestling, only the attack, the pulling, the pushing, and the lifting of the foot, so that the opponent is not struck, but slammed down. So far, Scaliger. This sport was old, if one considers it without skill, for then it was natural; and undoubtedly it also became an activity practiced with some skill early on. Gods and Herculesses, that is, ancient heroes, were said to have played it. It was also introduced early on at the Olympic Games. After being neglected for some time, it was restored there earlier than pugilism, as has been shown previously. It was namely restored during the eighteenth Olympiad, along with the pentathlon, and then it was that Eurybatus, a Spartan, was victorious, according to Pausanias. (Pausanias) We also recall beforehand that the practitioners of this struggle, the wrestlers, had to have heavy bodies, because heaviness was very useful to them, both for standing their ground and for attacking, pressing, pushing, and in turn withstanding and counteracting the pressure; because these things, as the sequel will show, were of particular importance here. And this was the reason why precisely these fighters were fattened up so heavily, as stated in the first book.
§. II.
Furthermore, the origin of the Greek word for wrestling is quite uncertain: because, as is apparent from Mercurialis and others who have used his work,
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some have derived it from 'long ago,' because this combat sport was said to be the oldest; (Mercurialis, book 2, chapter 8) which, however, could only relate to natural and artless wrestling, not to wrestling as a public sport, in which the very greatest skill was seen, which is of a later date. (Philippus Pfeiffer, Greek Antiquities, book 2, chapter 69) Some derive it from 'mud,' because this form of competition requires dust, mud, and ointment. Sophocles derives it from 'to throw down,' which means to throw someone down with cunning and skill. But about this, we think that word was borrowed from the sport and thus originated later. Pliny derives it from 'palm of the hand,' the joining of the four fingers, the part of the hand with which the wrestlers offered the most resistance. But we think the same about this as about the previous one. Some derive it from 'to throw down,' which the poets use for throwing down or scattering. Some from 'to shake up' or 'to be lifted up,' to lift from the earth, as wrestlers sometimes do. About these last two, we could again say the same. Some from 'to approach' or 'to come near.' Others derive it from somewhere else again. We think it can perhaps be better derived from 'to strew,' which means 'to join together,' 'to pour over,' or 'to mix': since in this, a mingling among themselves and a pouring over or anointing with oil took place, as was shown in its place when we treated the preparations and equipment. (book 1, chapter 9) There we also discussed the dust with which they were strewn, and 'the sand': we will not repeat that now, because it was already said there, and we now consider our wrestlers as prepared and ready to wrestle, indeed, as already engaged in it.
§. III.
The wrestling match had such prestige from ancient times that not only was the entire training school for it called a 'palaestra,'
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as has also been said, but they, the wrestlers, were also emphatically and pompously called 'prize fighters' (athletes), (Mercurialis, book 2, chapter 8) and under their own name, namely 'wrestlers,' others were also designated and included, particularly the pugilists and the pancratiasts, as Faber proves. (Faber, On Contests, book 1, chapter 11, at the end) This is not very strange with regard to these two, since they (and especially the latter) practiced wrestling in part. (Galenus, On Foods, book 3, chapter 2)
§. IV.
Furthermore, wrestling was twofold, namely a 'standing wrestling' and a 'throwing wrestling.' (Mercurialis, On the Art of Gymnastics, book 2, chapter 8) Although Salmasius actually distinguishes these types of wrestling: (Faber, On Contests, book 1, chapter 10) one that occurred standing and was intended to be thrown underfoot, and another that took place 'rolling' on the ground and is otherwise called the 'all-fight.' (Salmasius, Plinian Exercises on Solinus, p. 205) We, however, adhere to those who maintain the first-mentioned division, which we will now explain further. Standing wrestling was approved by Plato and described approximately as follows: (Plato, book 7, On the Laws) namely that in standing wrestling there should be an upright posture of the neck, a graceful movement of the hands and loins, and a fine stance of all other limbs. It should therefore be taught to the youth, because it served for the increase of strength, the preservation of health, and was useful throughout life, and in particular for the art of war. But to get an even clearer understanding of it: it happened, according to Mercurialis, standing in the same place, and in such a way that they defeated their opposing wrestlers by only extending their hands. Such a wrestler was a certain Melancomas, much beloved by Emperor Titus, according to the testimony of Themistius in his tenth oration, 'On Peace.'
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In this art, a certain Leontiscus from Sicily was famous from ancient times, about whom Pausanias says: and in wrestling, Leontiscus was victorious in no other way than Sostratus in the 'all-fight' defeated his opponents. (Pausanias, book 6) For he did not throw his opposing wrestlers to the ground, but forced victory by crushing their fingertips. From this it appears that this form of wrestling had some resemblance to pugilism, but much more to that exercise which was called 'fingertip-fighting.' See Paschalius, (Paschalius, book 6, chapter 24) Faber, (Faber, On Contests, book 1, chapter 11) and Lydius. (Lydius, On Contests, chapter 18) Chrysostom also teaches us about the standing wrestling match, and shows that it also had this in common with pugilism, that a good stance, position, or posture had to be ensured. (Chrysostom on Ephesians 6:13-14) He writes as follows: (a) "He therefore does not simply speak about standing, but about a well-ordered stance. Military experts know how important it is to stand well: for if among pugilists and wrestlers it is commanded above all to stand well, how much more so in war and in war matters. He who stands upright, does not stand slack, not sluggish, and not bent over. The perfect uprightness
() Chrysostom rightly notes this on Ephesians 6:13-14, since, after 'wrestling' is mentioned in verse 12, Paul now speaks twice about 'standing.' 'So that, having done everything, we may be able to stand. Stand therefore, etc.' The apostle often uses this word 'to stand': as in 1 Corinthians 16:13, Philippians 4:1, and 1 Corinthians 10:12.
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reveals itself in the stance." The ancient Church Father Clement of Alexandria also speaks about this, saying: (Clement of Alexandria, The Instructor, book 3, chapter 1) "It is not necessary to exert oneself to show skill in that matter, but one must fight with a standing wrestling match, and place necks, hands, and sides against each other." Usually, however, such a standing wrestling match was not a wrestling match in itself, but only a part of and a prelude to the wrestling that threw, or to the 'all-fight.' (Paschalius, in the cited place) For before the wrestlers grabbed each other and threw each other, they first had to fight in an upright stance for the positions and the best opportunity; after which they took a little rest and caught their breath, and after that was done, they moved on to the next fight or the next wrestling match.
§. V.
Which, as said, is called the () 'throwing.' Mercurialis (Mercurialis, in the cited place) describes it thus: "This was nothing other than a certain exercise, which took place in a special place of the training school, namely the wrestling area, or covered colonnade which was called 'the polished' (xystus), etc." That is: this was nothing other than a certain exercise, which usually took place in a special place of the training school (and just as it took place there, so it also happened in public), namely the wrestling area, or covered gallery, which was called Xystus: in which two wrestlers, naked, anointed with oil and strewn with dust, grabbed each other by the arms and in mutual
() When Paul says of himself and his colleagues in 2 Corinthians 4:9 'thrown down, but not destroyed,' he probably alludes to the wrestlers who were indeed thrown down by their opponents, but got up again to renew the fight with their opponents.
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struggle tried to throw one another to the ground. To achieve that, attacks, surprises, taking positions, and coming together were necessary; and above all, they tried to first grab the feet. The drunken Pseudolus in Plautus indicates this, (Plautus, in Pseudolus, act 5, scene 1) when he says about wine:
"He first grabs the feet: he is a cunning wrestler."
That is:
He grabs the legs first,
that cunning wrestler.
But before they engaged in the fight, they warmed up the muscles and stretched them with rubbing and gentle movements. It happened that, when some had neglected this, some parts tore and were injured by spasms, as Galenus says in book 4, 'On the Affected Places.' The same writes elsewhere that the fighters of the training school in wrestling followed this order: that no hot-tempered bosses started before the lesser and weaker ones were taught, and that they were not used to attacking before they were rubbed in, just as they were not rubbed in before they were anointed. I have said of TWO, because although more could wrestle at the same time in the same place, they still fought one against one, and in some places not only men fought with men, but also girls entered the arena with young men, as among the Lacedaemonians, and as Athenaeus also tells about the inhabitants of Chios, and so on.
§. VI.
In this wrestling match, great skill was to be found. (Aristotle, Rhetoric, 1) For not for nothing did Aristotle say of it that it was not only 'the oldest' but also the most artful of all sports. For, says Paschalius,
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"the wrestler did not carelessly give himself into the hands of (Paschalius, in the cited place) his fellow wrestler, but cautiously and with speed he evaded what had to be evaded, until he saw a chance for victory." And this was particularly remarkable in this struggle: that before the wrestlers mingled with each other, they first fought for position and stance. After that, they fought in such a way that they could catch their breath; after this was done, 'they start the fight again.' Philo, who elsewhere compares the Egyptians to the wrestlers, says: "after they have caught their breath from revenge, like the wrestlers at the games, etc." The same writes elsewhere: "in the manner of a wrestler, who is not allowed to catch his breath, nor to gather his strength to resume the fight." From this description, it appears that they not only caught their breath once, namely after the fight for position and stance, which we have already shown above, but also after a first attack. At the same time, it appears that when the last and heaviest attack took place, no rest or breathing space was granted anymore.
§. VII.
Furthermore, the following techniques were involved in this combat sport: the wrestlers first tried to keep each other at a distance by bending and leaning, so that they could not get a grip on each other. Then they tried to 'seize,' to 'hold,' and to 'press' each other (under which last two words Aristotle (Aristotle, Rhetoric, book 1, chapter 5) had long since summarized all the attempts and actions of the wrestlers),
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and specifically by the arms. Then 'to grab by the throat' and to constrict it, or to 'turn' or 'twist' the neck, so that it was shown to all spectators, which was perhaps also called 'neck-turning,' or 'to turn' or 'to break' the neck, because the word is derived from 'neck.' Furthermore, 'to bend,' like a flexible wicker rod, because it comes from 'wicker'; 'to tear crosswise,' 'to seize and pull step by step'; 'to throw with dust and grit'; and then finally to 'grab the legs or heels' or rather to lift them, either with the hands or the feet, to make someone fall, which the Latins call 'supplantare.' And then finally 'to overthrow,' 'to throw underfoot.' See for more on these wrestling words what Faber has noted. (Faber, On Contests, book 1, chapter 10) But some also count this among their artful moves: that they tried to 'grab the middle,' a decent expression which means to grab the private parts. This could happen more easily due to the
() When Paul says 'etc. all things are naked and open etc.' (Hebrews 4:13), some believe that he alludes to the sacrificed animals that were cut open, from the neck down. Others, however, want the expression to be borrowed from a wrestler who overpowers his opponent and throws him naked on his back and neck in such a way that he shows him from top to bottom to the spectators. Perizonius (on Aelianus, Varia Historia 12:58) rejects this and prefers to connect it with the custom of the ancients, who had those who were led to the death penalty hold their heads back. See Pliny, Panegyricus 34; Suetonius, in the life of Vitellius, chapter 17.
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nakedness. The belt, which was worn before the time of Orsippus and later among the Romans (whose decorum did not allow them to imitate Spartan immorality), offered some protection against such a nuisance for the said parts. For it is known that even among the girded wrestlers, after that binding was pulled loose or shifted, those most tender limbs were grabbed. Thus, Trebellius Pollio tells us that when Claudius, before he became emperor, wanted to test his strength and power in wrestling, a soldier, his opposing wrestler, grabbed him by the said parts and squeezed them instead of the belt. (Trebellius Pollio, in the life of Claudius) This he took so badly that with one blow he knocked all the soldier's teeth out of his mouth. He did this with all the more reason because, in all likelihood, the wrestling in which Claudius had engaged was a military wrestling match, (Hofmannus, under the keyword 'wrestling') in which it was not permitted to act so rudely.
§. VIII.
The victory in this sport thus consisted of throwing the opponent, and that is why it was pursued with so much effort. This is clear enough from the matter itself and from all testimonies, but in particular from the allusion of Chrysostom, who says: (Chrysostom, on Ephesians 6, sermon 22) "If we go away wrestling, we have won; for it is not like among the sports wrestlers, for there you have not won if you have not thrown the other to the ground, etc." Hence, Plutarch derives the word 'wrestling' from 'to deceive,' which has already been discussed above. (Plutarch, Table Talk, book 2, question 4)
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saying: "'Wrestling' seems to me to be so named after the word for 'deceiving,' which means to throw down with deceit and cunning." Elsewhere he says that wrestling consisted of 'throwing each other down with pushes and twists.' Salmasius was therefore right to say: "'the goal of wrestling is to throw down'." (Salmasius, Plinian Exercises on Solinus, p. 205) The throwing now depended not so much on strength and power, as on skill and cunning. Therefore, when a Spartan was asked about his opposing wrestler, he replied: "He was not stronger than I, but more skillful in throwing down."
§. IX.
Meanwhile, it was not enough to achieve victory by having thrown the opponent to the ground once; it had to happen three times. This is apparent from the story told about the crude Milo by Salmasius. (Salmasius, ibidem) He had entered the arena, but no one dared to engage in the wrestling match with him. Therefore, he was called to pick up the prize as the winner, but on the way he fell on his own. For that reason, many shouted loudly that he should not be crowned, since he had fallen. To which he, quickly getting up, called back:
"Friends, pay attention, it's not three falls yet;
I only fell once, before you all."
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"Whoever wants to, come on and throw me again
If you can, down once more."
The falls were called 'ptoomata,' and the poet means with the word τρία 'στίν, for τρία ἐστίν, because of the following vowel, as if it said 'three falls,' which is why we have also translated it that way. However, that there had to be three throws is also very clear from this statement by Seneca: (Seneca, On Benefits, book 5, chapter 3) "The runner who first reaches the finish line has passed the other by his speed, not by his mental strength; the wrestler who has been thrown to the ground three times has lost the palm, not transferred it." From these three throws, the words 'to throw three times' and 'to be thrown three times' arose. Hence, the glosses say: (Etymologicum Magnum) "'To throw three times' means to win; borrowed from the wrestlers, who achieve victory in a three-time repeated struggle." Again: "'To be thrown three times' the wrestlers say for 'to fall three times'." Likewise, Matthias Martinius: (Martinius in Cadmus Graeco-Phoenicius, under the keyword Τριάζω) "'To throw three times,' I win; from the athletes, whose victory was in a three-times repeated struggle; as it were, 'I triple'." Others, however, have understood this Greek word as the running of a triple race, namely: the single race, the double race, and the long race. This triple race is considered by Salmasius, based on Pollux, to be that which is specifically called 'the pentathlon.'
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§. X.
Outside the Olympic arena, in ancient times, the winners of this sport were given the same prizes as the winning pugilists, namely oxen with a beautiful maiden. About this, the reader can read what was said about the pugilists. (Paschalius, in the cited place) We only add here that Hercules is said to have been crowned by Mercury, who was specially sent for it, upon his victory over Antaeus, whom he eventually killed by wrestling, if one wants to believe it.
§. XI.
Furthermore, the illustration () of the wrestling arena may strengthen the reader's imagination. Here three pairs are shown: the back pair seems to be fighting the standing match, without being entwined or mingled with each other; either that they would end with this, or that they were playing the prelude in this way, before they gave an opportunity to grab each other. The other pair shows themselves so that one wraps his arms around the shoulders of the other, and they knock their heads against each other. The front pair shows themselves so that one holds the other by the arms and in this way tries to swing him, or seeks an opportunity to then grab him by the thigh and heel, then lift the foot and make him fall to the ground.
() Found in Mercurialis, p. 145, with the caption 'Wrestlers'.