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NINTH CHAPTER.
Preparatory Exercises and Preliminaries of the Games. Participants who present themselves. Directors, caregivers, and judges. The work they had to perform. Announcement of the Games and invitation thereto. Truce proclaimed. Women forbidden to attend. Measures to ward off flies. Registration of the participants on the Olympic roll. Examination of those registered. Preparation of the approved players. Prayers and sacrifices for victory. Lots. Respect for the directors. Encouragement of the combatants.
§ I.
The order of the topics now brings us to the further preparations and equipment. As soon as we have examined and presented those, we will get a clear view of the Olympic field and take a close look at the great games themselves.
§ II.
When the time had advanced to thirty days before the public celebration of the great games, the preliminary exercises and preliminaries of the solemn game were held. Now the participants had to prepare themselves for an even stricter abstinence, more effort and exercise, and even show themselves fighting in the arena for the people, the head trainer, and the game judges. (Faber, Agonisticus, book 3, chapter 11 and chapter 24, at the end). Thus
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they could at the same time let the people know that they would certainly have the honor of being players at the great game, and also prove and show their strengths.
§ III.
Now also gradually came into view the directors, caregivers, and judges of the games, of different ranks and with different tasks, although they had been chosen beforehand. For those who bore the name Hellanodikai (Greek judges) (about whom we will speak shortly) had been chosen at least ten months in advance, installed, and taught all the requirements of the games by those who bear the name Nomophylakes (law guardians) in Pausanias, according to the account of Faber. He also believes that this period of ten months (Faber, book 3, chapter 24) was more than short enough to enable these directors to judge all the movements of the fighters (namely whether they were unsuitable or precisely skilled, capable of hitting or dodging, pleasant and graceful, or ugly and repulsive) and to award the prizes fairly. Furthermore, these directors are briefly described to us by Hospinianus, who says: "Furthermore, there were judges of these contests, whom they called Agonotheten (organizers of the games) (in the beginning there was only one), the game founder Hercules, Iphitus, Oxylus. But at the fiftieth Olympiad, this dignity was assigned to two citizens from Elis, a number that then existed for a long time. At the twenty-fifth Olympiad there were nine judges, whom they called Hellanodikai. Three supervised the horse races, three the pentathlon, and the others were for the other games. The next Olympiad a tenth was added. But because the Eleans consisted of twelve tribes, that ensured that at the
(Hospinianus, On the origin of festivals, chapter 17)
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hundred and third Olympiad a judge was chosen from each tribe. After that, when they were fought by the Arcadians, defeated and deprived of part of their land, they eliminated four from that number, for that many tribes had come under enemy power around the hundred and fourth Olympiad. Twenty years later the matter finally came back to ten, according to the testimony of Pausanias in his work on Elis. These judges were now also called Brabeutai (prize distributors) and Agonotheten (organizers of the games). It is also found that they were called Mastigophoroi (rod bearers) (*) by some. Scaliger and Caelius Rhodiginus also mention this. (Scaliger, Poetica, book 1, chapter 24) (Caelius Rhodiginus, Antiquae Lectiones, book 13, chapter 17) So far Hospinianus.
§ IV.
A more extensive account of these we find in the learned Carolus Paschalius, which is worth inserting here translated: "Furthermore, so that a matter of such importance was accomplished with the greatest equity, there were judges and spectators present. These, enclosed within a certain enclosure, were obliged under oath to judge according to conscience. Thus testify Plato in his Laws, Pausanias (Paschalius, On crowns, book 6, chapter 10, at the end and chapter 11) in his work on Elis, Pindar in several places, and others, as I will say below. And the place where these judges sat was called Plethrion; and this place was safe as a sanctuary. --- Furthermore, these judges were, as is probable, chosen from
(*) Luke uses the word rod bearer twice in Acts 16:35, 38, where our translators translate it as 'city official'. One would actually say 'rod bearer', as in some cities of the Netherlands the name rod bearers and rod-bearing messengers is also common. The court officials of the Romans were accustomed to carrying staffs and rods for the government, together with axes, to inspire awe and fear. Plutarch says: "Moreover, the bundled rods of the Romans with axes attached to them are carried, as a sign that the power of the magistrates should by no means be immediate and unlimited."
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the foremost or the government of all Greek states, at least as long as Greece has been free. --- It is also likely that those were chosen as judges who had returned as victors from these games. --- And these judges seem to have been dressed in purple, or at least crowned, with a staff in their hand, as I conclude from a passage of Plutarch in his life of Pompey, and likewise from another in his life of Cato the Younger. --- And this care or organization of the games is of older origin: for when the knights ran at the funeral rites of Patroclus, Achilles wanted Phoenix, a follower of his father, to sit with them:
He gave the honor to preside
At the running game for this corpse
To Phoenix, from his father's side
A swift follower, so that he might give the verdict
Truthfully --
And these judges awarded the crown that each one deserved; a privilege that is certainly counted among the royal dignities, as Strabo reports of some kings. --- Furthermore, these judges or authorities were referred to by different names: for they were called Agonotheten (organizers of the games), Athlotheten (prize setters), Diatheten (regulators of the games), Epimeleten (overseers), Episkopoi (supervisors), Prostates (advocates), Bishops, Supervisors. They were also called Brabeutai (prize distributors), who gave to the combatants
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what was right; as well as Agonarchai (leaders of the games), Agonodikai (judges of the games), authorities of the games. They were also called Agonios (game-men); which honorary name, although it belongs to Mercury, Homer gives to Pallas, according to Aristides; for she judges the contests herself. They were also called HELLANODIKAI (Greek judges), namely the magistrates from Elis, regulators of the Olympic games; so, I say, called by the Greeks, because they judged the fighters and other combatants, or pugilists. --- Their number has been different: for Pausanias writes that Iphitus alone judged the games, which was continued by the descendants of Oxylus. After that, nine are mentioned; Iarchas the Indian says there were ten; sometimes there were seven, sometimes twelve. --- But furthermore Pollux says that these were called Brabeutai or Brabeis and Brabeutai (prize distributors). --- In addition to the judges there were also those who were called Mastigophoroi (rod bearers), because they led the champions into the arena. --- There was also someone whose name was Alytarches: the one who guarded the moral purity at the Olympic games; namely the chief over the Mastigophoroi and rod bearers, appointed over good morals. --- Finally, there was in these games a notable person who bore the name ALEIPTES (anointing master), and so on. So far from Paschalius.
§ V.
The work of these directors of the game (by which I mean the AGONOTHETEN, ATHLOTHETEN, DIATHETEN, EPIMELETEN, directors, caregivers, and so on, believing that these, as a lower rank, were distinguished from the HELLANODIKAI, judges, and
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BRABEUTEN, prize distributors; since Lucian also places them on the left hand (Lucian in Hermotimus) of the HELLANODIKAI) was to ensure that (Faber, Agonisticus, book 1, chapter 19, at the beginning) the preliminaries, mentioned above, were well held, and that everything was prepared that could contribute to the necessity and splendor of the solemn game, this undoubtedly being executed by the ALYTARCHES and his subordinates. And these directors agreed in this with various directors of the Romans, who had to take care of the public games. So there it was the task of mayors and sheriffs to organize the CIRCUS GAMES, the CENTURY GAMES, and the APOLLO GAMES; (Cantelius, On the Roman Republic, treatise 6, chapter 3) and of the public architects to take care of the CEREAL GAMES and often also the FUNERAL RITES. According to this care, the theater had to be decorated and sprinkled with sand (especially where the wrestling and pugilism would take place). Of NERO, however, it is said that he sprinkled the racetrack with gold dust out of a frivolous waste, which CALIGULA would also have done before him. But HELIOGABALUS made it even worse, when he did the same with gold filings, as Oudaan (J. Oudaan, Roman Power, 6th dialogue) recounts from SUETONIUS, Pliny, and Lampridius. The care had yet to perform several other things, which we will not speak about now.
§ VI.
For the preparation of the games, it was also necessary that, undoubtedly through the service of the directors, at least of the HELLANODIKAI, the supreme judges (Pausanias, book 5), the envoys were sent out by the Greek states to announce the games and to invite them to appear there; just as also according to that rule the Romans used to send their HERALDS through
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Italy against the approach of the Century Games, to make them known and to invite the people to the viewing of such games, "which no one had ever seen, nor ever would see". About this outcry, done on the order of CLAUDIUS (Suetonius, Claudius, chapter 21), the people laughed heartily, since many of them remembered that they had attended the celebration of the Century Games under the reign of AUGUSTUS, while not yet sixty-three years had passed between them.
§ VII.
In addition to the announcement of the games and the invitation thereto, a truce was also commanded and proclaimed by the envoys through the Greek states, if there was war somewhere, so that the games could be celebrated with more attendance and splendor in all certainty, as appears from Thucydides (Thucydides, On the Peloponnesian War, book 5) and Pausanias (Pausanias, book 5). The latter recounts that, to announce the truce, the discus of IPHITUS was used, because it showed the wording and conditions thereof written on the edge. Whoever violated the truce was punished with a heavy fine, and yet it was sometimes violated. For example, the Eleans accused the Lacedemonians of having broken the peace around the Olympic time by hostilely attacking the fort PHYCREUM and the city LEPREUM, for which reason they denied them access to the temple, the sacrifice, and the contest, unless the fine was paid first. Against this the Lacedemonians excused themselves through their envoys, by arguing that they had committed those hostilities before the truce had been proclaimed in SPARTA. Everything can be read in more detail in Thucydides at the mentioned place.
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§ VIII.
The command was also renewed, by which women were forbidden to come to the Olympic games, and even (Pausanias, book 5) (Alexander ab Alexandro, book 5, chapter 8) during the games to go over the river ALPHEUS. (Paschalius, On crowns, book 6, chapter 29) The woman who went against this was thrown from the steep slope of the mountain, which bore the name TYPAEUS. This undoubtedly only came into use after ORSIPPUS had lost his belt, which allowed him to run unhindered to the finish and run away with the prize, according to Pausanias (Pausanias, book 1, at the end). Although others say that the belt, which fell off him against his will, so hindered and obstructed him that he fell short and died of grief. So Isidore speaks: "For previously those who (Isidore, Etymologies, book 18, chapter 17) fought in the place were girded not to be naked; after that (Faber, Agonisticus, at the cited place) a certain runner (Orsippus), after his belt had fallen off, suddenly fell down dead. Therefore, according to the decision of the Council, the archon Hippomenes allowed that henceforth all would practice naked." According to that law, the contestants were thus completely naked from then on; and the first who showed himself according to that law at the next Olympic games is called HECANTUS by Alexander ab Alexandro (Alexander ab Alexandro, book 5, chapter 8), ACANTHUS by Natalis Comes (Natalis Comes, book 5, chapter 1), and NEANTHUS by Dionysius of Halicarnassus (Dionysius of Halicarnassus, book 7). He was undoubtedly a Lacedemonian. This was, it seems, the reason that from then on women were denied the sight of the games. Yet from this denial (Pausanias, book 5) one woman is excepted, PHERENICE, whom others (Aelianus, Varia Historia, book 10, chapter 1) call KALLIPATEIRA, and still others (Valerius Maximus, book 8, chapter 15) ARISTOPATEIRA. Her history is told by the writers as follows: She, a widow, brought her son PISIDORUS in male attire to the game, and pretended to be a game master. When she saw that he won, she, shaking off her clothes, jumped within the enclosure of the
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directors, and was recognized as a woman. (Aeschines, Letter 4) Therefore they wanted to judge and kill her according to the law; (Pindar, Olympic Odes and the scholia thereto) but she pleaded against it, by showing that she was the daughter, sister, and mother of Olympic victors, and on that basis not only kept her life, but also received the authority to be present at the game at every Olympiad. Besides her, the priestesses of CERES were also allowed to be present and view the game. See the mentioned writers. It seems that their chastity was trusted so much. However, after some time (Plutarch, in Agesilaus § 31) the Lacedemonian king AGESILAUS not only let his sister CYNISCA come there to watch, no, but sitting on a chariot with others compete for the running prize, which she also won. (Paschalius, On crowns, book 6, chapter 29) And he did this, it seems, to mock the Greeks and their games, which had now strayed from their original dignity, as if they could well be practiced by women, because it was a work not of bravery, but of pomp and circumstance. The Roman dignity, more praiseworthy than the Spartan naked debauchery, ensured that AUGUSTUS forbade women, even the Vestal virgins, (Suetonius, in Augustus, chapter 44) from coming to view the combatants, despite them being dressed more honorably and at least having their private parts covered with a belt. However, the monster of men, NERO, destroyed this institution of AUGUSTUS. He invited, says Suetonius, (Idem in Nero, chapter 12) the Vestal virgins to the viewing of the game-combatants, because it is permitted to the priestesses of the Olympic Ceres to view them. With his death this custom was undoubtedly undone again.
§ IX.
An arrangement was also made against the time of the games for warding off the flies, which would otherwise plague both players and spectators unbearably in such a crowd and heat. This was done
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by sacrificing to JUPITER Apomyios, the Fly-chaser, as the Eleans called Him. (Pausanias, book 5) What a wonder that smoke and vapor chased away the flies! This would have originated with HERCULES, son of ALCMENE, who, because he could not drive away the flies by simply sacrificing to JUPITER, sacrificed to JUPITER the Fly-chaser; uncertain, says Pausanias, whether he invented that first, or whether he had it from tradition. For this sacrifice white poplar wood had to be used and burned; this also in imitation of HERCULES, since he also had the thighs of the sacrificial animals burned with such wood; which he also had first brought to Greece, namely from THESPROTIA from around the river ACHERON, where the poplar grew a lot; why Homer called it the Acherontic Poplar. See Pausanias for more details.
§ X.
Meanwhile, the enthusiasts, who would not view but perform the games, also had to have their names (Faber, Agonisticus, book 3, chapter 18) registered on the Olympic roll, which was perhaps also (Aristides, Oration 1) proclaimed and posted everywhere: just as in Rome not only the time and day of the gladiator fight, but also the names of the gladiators were put on a roll and proclaimed. This registration was called registration, (Lucilius, Anthology, book 2, chapter 1) the act itself being registered, the registered ones the registered ones, and their opponents opponents. They not only had to have their names written down, but also their origin and fatherland, that is, from which Greek state they came (for they had to be Greeks and free citizens, as will be said below), they had to have recorded, and moreover in which kind of game they
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intended to fight, according to the testimony of HELIODORUS. (Heliodorus, Aethiopica, book 4, at the beginning) Those who had had their names registered did not have permission to stay away, but had to necessarily appear. This is proven by Paschalius (Paschalius, book 6, chapter 10) with various writers.
§ XI.
Undoubtedly, a day before the game, those who had registered on the roll were gathered by the directors in a room; who then performed an inspection, an investigation into the required qualities. They then investigated: 1. Whether they were Greeks. This is clearly shown by what Herodotus recounts, saying: (Herodotus in Terpsichore) "for when Alexander applied for it (the Olympic game), (Faber, book 3, chapter 12, at the end) he was stopped by the competitors, because they denied that this was a contest for foreigners, but for Greeks; but when he publicly proved to be an Argive, he was judged a Greek," and so on. 2. Whether they were lawfully born and could prove their lawful parents: just as also lawful birth was required among the Cretans, if someone wanted to be admitted to the training games, according to the testimony of Aristotle. (Aristotle, Politics, book 2, chapter 5) That the Olympic directors also demanded a lawful birth is sufficiently apparent from the story of Euphrates in Themistius, (Themistius, Oration 1) who says that they did not admit anyone, unless he could show "his father, and mother, and an irreproachable descent." Therefore they also did not want to admit PHILAMMON, unless he proved his descent and lawfulness; which he then, because he could not provide other evidence, had to have testified by Aristotle, and even that was not enough, he had to adopt him as his son, (Hyginus) "so Hyginus says". (Faber, 261)
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See more about this in Faber. 3. Whether they were free; since (Faber, book 3, chapter 18) no slaves were considered worthy to practice the great athletic contest: they were, however, admitted to other games, as appears from Artemidorus, who also says that when (Artemidorus, book 1, chapter 64) a servant dreamed that he ran the Olympic race (Idem ibidem, chapter 60), freedom would thereby be signified to him. 4. Whether they were honest and virtuous people, who (Paschalius, book 6, chapter 5) were free from evil deeds: just as it was also a disgrace in SPARTA to have a scoundrel as a housemate and fellow combatant (Xenophon in Republic of the Lacedemonians) in the arena. 5. Whether they had outgrown childhood and were of the required age (despite the fact that after some time, namely at the 37th Olympiad, children were also allowed to play with children, and no wonder, because after some time athletic contests for women were also introduced), which (Paschalius, book 6, chapter 10) was called an examination of age. 6. Whether they had exercised for ten months, and had diligently attended the preliminaries for thirty days, and had done everything that the laws required regarding exercise, abstinence (Chrysostom on 2 Timothy 2:5) from food and coitus, patience, and so on. (Basil in Ascetica) And furthermore 7. whether they would celebrate the games (Pausanias, book 5) lawfully, according to the laws (Faber, book 3, chapter 1), leaving behind all cunning and deceit. And they had to confirm these last points with an oath, swearing on the testicles of a pig by JUPITER, surnamed HORKIOS (the Swearing), who held the lightning with both hands, to deter the perjurers.
To this still had to come the letters of recommendation, ()
() The apostle Paul also speaks of letters of recommendation in 2 Corinthians 3:1: "Do we also, as some do, need letters of recommendation to you, or (letters) of recommendation from you?" Undoubtedly with an allusion to the letters of recommendation that one took with them after the Olympic games.
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to commend the persons, which, however, were not opened before the end of the game, and after the prize had already been distributed; so that the judges would not be bribed (Faber, book 3, chapter 23): judges, I say, who were highly praised everywhere for their (Lydius, Sacred Games, chapter 31) impartiality and just judgment, and as an (Dio Chrysostom in Rhodiaca) example for others: although (Plutarch, Laconian Apophthegms) the Spartan king AGIS scoffed at it: "some praise the Eleans, as if they are the most righteous because of the Olympic game: but what great (he says) or what wondrous thing do they do, if they practice righteousness on only one day every five years?"
Then they were led through the theater by the PRAECO, the announcer, and proclaimed by him, whether anyone had anything to say against that and that one, and his brought-in evidence. This is shown to us clearly enough by John Chrysostom, who says: "Alas, tell me: in (John Chrysostom in Epistle to the Hebrews and to the People) the Olympic games the announcer is not there, shouting with a strong voice: 'can anyone accuse this one of being a slave, or a thief, or subject to other vices?'" And elsewhere: "those who want to go to that theater do not come (Antiochus, homily 21) to the contests earlier than after the announcer has led them around in the face of all, crying and saying: 'is there anyone who accuses this one?'" and so on.
When all this had been done without delay, the contestants were as far as deemed approved, ()
() When the holy Paul says in 1 Corinthians 9:27 "lest I, having preached to others, myself become rejected (ἀδόκιμος)" Drusius believes that expression is borrowed from silver, which is not purified of its dross; as also the Septuagint says in Proverbs 25:4 and Isaiah 1:22. Grotius is of the same opinion about Romans 1:28, and also cites Titus 1:16 and Hebrews 6:8. It is true, the words ἀδόκιμος, δόκιμος, δοκιμή are indeed associated with ores; but when we look at the passage 1 Corinthians 9:27 well, we quickly notice that the apostle remains in the allusion to the Olympic field, as he had done in verses 24, 25, 26. So also believe Ursinus, Hammondus, and others. See also Lydius chapter 16 and 43. Some believe that this is also alluded to in Romans 5:4, 2 Corinthians 2:9 and 13:5, 6, 7, and 2 Timothy 2:15.
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that they were worthy and able to be admitted to the athletic contests, which also happened.
§ XII.
More things happened with regard to the preparation, partly shortly before the holding of the games, partly even on the morning and the day itself. For the approved players now had to be prepared for the actual games. Therefore they had to be undressed, yes, completely stripped naked, although they had previously worn a belt or apron around their private parts, called perizoma by the Greeks and subligaculum and cingulum by the Latins, as has been said before. Among the Romans, besides the ATHLETES, the contestants, the GLADIATORS, the sword fighters, were also stripped naked, but at the same time again provided with a belt, and their taken-off clothes were thrown into the spoliarium, that is, the place in the gymnasium where they undressed (which was also called (Gruterus in volume, p. 489) exspoliare). Thus the contestants completely took off with their clothes all the burden (), which would otherwise hinder them in running, wrestling, and so on.
() When the apostle says in Hebrews 12:1, with an allusion to the runners in the racetrack, "let us lay aside every weight (ὄγκον)", one might think that he had in mind both the burden and heaviness of the body, which especially stood in the way of the runner, and all the burden and heaviness of clothes, which could also greatly hinder the runners; since the word ὄγκος usually refers to clothes in the New Testament. Or one should think that the apostle with the laying aside of all burden refers to the heaviness of the body, and with the laying aside of the sin, which easily surrounds us, to the laying aside of clothes. Which is not so strange to state. See also Lydius chapter 19 and 28, Adami, Observationes Theologico-Philologicae, p. 388, etc.
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Moreover, the wrestlers (not the runners (Faber, book 2, chapter 5), pugilists, and others) were anointed (Mercurialis, book 1, chapter 8) with oil () after undressing, or rather with a CEROMA, that is, (J. Lydius, Agonistica, chapter 8) a mixture of oil, dust, and wax. About this CEROMA (Pliny, book 21, chapter 19 and book 28, chapter 9) Martial speaks in various places. (Martial, book 4, Epigram 19 and book 7, Epigram 66) This mixture was also called HAPHE; from which Martial says: "flavescit Haphe", the Haphe is, or becomes yellow. And this word seems, with the omission of the last letter, to come from the Hebrew dust, which is related to the verb to wrestle, as Jacobus Lydius proves at the place indicated in the margin from Genesis 32. The oil was also used purely, and the dust was sprinkled into it afterwards. The dust, I say, that was kept in the CONISTERIUM (called conistra by J. Pollux), and was supplied to the Romans from different regions, of which the most famous were the Puteolan and the Egyptian. So (Suetonius in Nero, chapter 45) NERO had it supplied instead of grain, according to the account of Suetonius. Just as Pliny also recounts, that (Pliny, Natural History, book 35, chapter 13) NERO'S freedman PATROBIUS had the finest sand, not
() Lydius says in chapter 8 that dirt in James 1:21 means: those dirts that are collected by the oil-smeared and sweating wrestlers from the dust of the wrestling arena.
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much less than the Puteolan dust, supplied from the Nile; just as also that two commanders of Alexander, namely CRATERUS and MELEAGER, dragged such dust with them among the military supplies. Mercurialis (Mercurialis, at the cited place) believes that not the entire CEROMA was mixed from oil, dust, and wax, but that this dust was especially called HAPHE, as being the Greek hold, because this dust gave grip to the oiled bodies; he also cites the mentioned place of Martial, (Martial, book 7, Epigram 66) besides another from Seneca, who says: "à ceromate nos haphe excepit"; that is: after the anointing we received the dust. (Seneca, Letter 57) Be that as it may, the oil was used to make the limbs supple and flexible and to protect against sprains; the dust, to make them rough and graspable, although others also cite strengthening and other things; the wax, to keep the oil, heat, and the excess sweat within the pores; or perhaps it served after the oil as the base on which the HAPHE, or the sand, the dust, could adhere.
§ XIII.
But those who had to run armed (about which run (book 1, chapter 11) we will deal with in more detail below), had to be equipped with the required weapons, which were: shield, breastplate, helmet, and shoes.
§ XIV.
Likewise, it is to be thought that the horse and chariot racers were equipped in advance with all the necessities and decorations.
§ XV.
Meanwhile, the pugilists also, not to speak now of their other equipment, were put on and dressed with their CAESTUS (boxing glove), about which we will speak in the right place.
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§ XVI.
Then, prayers and sacrifices for victory were made to the gods. This is clearly shown by what Clement of Alexandria says about a very famous contestant, who turned to the image of the Pisean JUPITER and uttered this: (Clement of Alexandria, book 2, chapter 8) "o Jupiter, if I have done everything properly to enter this fight, which had to be done beforehand, then justly grant me the victory." Yes, to obtain the victory, promises were sometimes made with the prayer to erect statues, to place shields and similar gifts in the temples of the gods, which gifts were called votive offerings. So Ephorus in Diogenes (Diogenes Laërtius, book 1, in Periander) Laërtius tells the following about a certain PERIANDER: "But Ephorus also tells that he had promised, if he would win in the Olympic game with the four-horse chariot, to erect a golden statue. When he had won and had no gold, he saw the women decorated at a certain festival; he then took all their jewelry and sent it away as a gift."
§ XVII.
Before the start of the game, the contestants also had to draw lots, to be divided into fighting pairs in running, pugilism, wrestling, and so on; as well as for the place, which was of great importance for the runners and chariot drivers, since those who got the first place had to run a shorter round around the turning post. The method of drawing lots, to make each
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one get his opponent and to form the pairs, is described by Faber and Paschalius, the latter of whom (Faber, Agonisticus, book 1, chapter 24) (Paschalius, On crowns, book 6, chapter 12) explains as follows: "Then they went to the contest, in the manner that Lucian recounts with these words. (Lucian, Hermotimus) A golden jug is placed in the middle for that god (whose game it was). In it are thrown some small lots, about the size of beans, described with letters. Two are now both described with the letter A. On two is B. On two others G, and in the same way the others are described, if there are more game champions, so that there are always two lots marked with the same letter. Then the contestants come one by one, and praying make promises to Jupiter. Each one puts his hand in the jug, takes a lot out, and after him another does the same. With each one stands someone with a rod in the outstretched hand, to prevent the letters that have been drawn from being read. When each one has his lot, then the Alytarches, I think, or one of the judges (for I do not remember it so well) goes around, and examines and looks at the lots of those who stand in a circle. And so he admits the one who has A to the wrestling match, or wrestling and fist fight, with another who has A. After that, in the same way, the one who has drawn B with another of the same letter. This order to couple the contestants is also maintained with others who have drawn equally-lettered lots: namely, as far as the number of contestants is even, as eight, or four, or twelve; but if it is odd, as five, seven, nine, then a lot with a superfluous letter, which has no corresponding one, is thrown into the jug together with the others. The one who has drawn this sits in front, waiting until the others have completed the fight; for he has no letter that corresponds to his. And this is a great fortune for a contestant, since he only has to fight against the exhausted opponents with full strength."
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From this it can be seen that this odd participant had to enter the arena against the last one.
§ XVIII.
Thereupon they had to address and honor the game judges and directors with all respect and awe. So Suetonius recounts that even NERO, although an emperor, when he introduced the music game during the Olympic games against custom, did not hesitate, when he was to act as a player, to show respect to the judges. "He addressed the judges, before he began, (Suetonius in Nero, chapter 23) very respectfully, [saying] that he had done everything that had to be done, but that the outcome was in the hand of fate; and that they as wise and learned men had to exclude the accidental." Dio recounts, according to Casaubonus, (Casaubonus, note on the cited place) that when he came onto the stage, he would have said to the judges: "My lords, hear me with patience."
§ XIX.
However, it was the task of the judges and directors to strengthen the already ready-to-fight participants with encouraging words and to, as it were, give them a boost, namely in this way: (Faber, Agonisticus, book 2, chapter 31) "do nothing frivolous, nor anything that degenerates, and go forth bravely." This (Paschalius, On crowns, book 6, chapter 10) does not differ much from the address in the Pythian and Isthmian games, which was as follows: "go forth into the arena, and show yourselves to be men, so that you may win." Thereupon each one went forth, and the actual performances of the contest began; about which the second book will give us a broader account. And with this this first book is at an end.